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Prevalence and Risk Factors of Diabetic Nephropathy in an Urban South Indian Population

The Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study (CURES 45)

From the Madras Diabetes Research Foundation and Dr. Mohan's Diabetes Specialties Centre, Gopalapuram, Chennai, India

Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. V. Mohan, MD, FRCP, FRCP, PhD, DSc, Chairman and Chief of Diabetes Research, Madras Diabetes Research Foundation and Dr. Mohan's Diabetes Specialities Centre, 4 Conran Smith Rd., Gopalapuram, Chennai, 600 086, India. E-mail: drmohans{at}vsnl.net

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS-- RESULTS-- CONCLUSIONS-- References

 
OBJECTIVE—The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of diabetic nephropathy among urban Asian-Indian type 2 diabetic subjects.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—Type 2 diabetic subjects (n = 1,716), inclusive of known diabetic subjects (KD subjects) (1,363 of 1,529; response rate 89.1%) and randomly selected newly diagnosed diabetic subjects (NDD subjects) (n = 353) were selected from the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study (CURES). Microalbuminuria was estimated by immunoturbidometric assay and diagnosed if albumin excretion was between 30 and 299 µg/mg of creatinine, and overt nephropathy was diagnosed if albumin excretion was 300 µg/mg of creatinine in the presence of diabetic retinopathy, which was assessed by stereoscopic retinal color photography.

RESULTS—The prevalence of overt nephropathy was 2.2% (95% CI 1.51–2.91). Microalbuminuria was present in 26.9% (24.8–28.9). Compared with the NDD subjects, KD subjects had greater prevalence rates of both microalbuminuria with retinopathy and overt nephropathy (8.4 vs. 1.4%, P < 0.001; and 2.6 vs. 0.8%, P = 0.043, respectively). Logistic regression analysis showed that A1C (odds ratio 1.325 [95% CI 1.256–1.399], P < 0.001), smoking (odds ratio 1.464, P = 0.011), duration of diabetes (1.023, P = 0.046), systolic blood pressure (1.020, P < 0.001), and diastolic blood pressure (1.016, P = 0.022) were associated with microalbuminuria. A1C (1.483, P < 0.0001), duration of diabetes (1.073, P = 0.003), and systolic blood pressure (1.031, P = 0.004) were associated with overt nephropathy.

CONCLUSIONS—The results of the study suggest that in urban Asian Indians, the prevalence of overt nephropathy and microalbuminuria was 2.2 and 26.9%, respectively. Duration of diabetes, A1C, and systolic blood pressure were the common risk factors for overt nephropathy and microalbuminuria.

Abbreviations: ACEI, ACE inhibitor • ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker • CURES, Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study • ESRD, end-stage renal disease

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS-- RESULTS-- CONCLUSIONS-- References

 
Diabetic nephropathy is the leading cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) worldwide, and it is estimated that 20% of type 2 diabetic patients reach ESRD during their lifetime (1). Kidney disease in diabetic patients is clinically characterized by increasing rates of urinary albumin excretion, starting from normoalbuminuria, which progresses to microalbuminuria, macroalbuminuria, and eventually to ESRD. Microalbuminuria is the earliest clinically detectable stage of diabetic kidney disease at which appropriate interventions can retard, or reverse, the progress of the disease.

According to the most recent estimates published in the Diabetes Atlas 2006 (2), India has the largest number of diabetic patients in the world, estimated to be 40.9 million in the year 2007 and expected to increase to 69.9 million by the year 2025. Type 2 diabetes in Asian Indians differs from that in Europeans in several aspects: the onset is at a younger age, obesity is less common, and genetic factors appear to be more common (3). Some studies (4–6) conducted in migrant Asian Indians in the U.K. and Europe have reported increased prevalence of diabetic nephropathy compared with white Caucasians. The few studies published on the prevalence of diabetic nephropathy in India have all been clinic based (7,8). Indeed, the Diabetes Atlas 2006 (2) does not list a single population-based study on diabetic nephropathy from South Asia. This article reports on the first population-based data on the prevalence of diabetic nephropathy in India.

	RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS-- RESULTS-- CONCLUSIONS-- References

 
Study subjects were recruited from the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study (CURES), conducted on a representative population of Chennai (formerly Madras) in southern India, the fourth largest city in India with a population of 5 million. The city of Chennai is divided into 155 corporation wards representing a socioeconomically diverse group. The methodology of the study has been published elsewhere (9). Briefly, in phase 1 of CURES (urban component), 26,001 individuals aged 20 years were screened for diabetes using a systematic sampling technique from 46 corporation wards representative of the various social tiers in Chennai. The selection criterion was taken as 20 years of age due to younger age at onset of type 2 diabetes in Indians (9). Self-reported diabetic subjects identified in phase 1 (n = 1,529) were classified as known diabetic subjects (KD subjects). Fasting capillary blood glucose was determined using a One Touch Basic glucose meter (LifeScan, Johnson & Johnson, Milpitas, CA) in all subjects. Diabetes was diagnosed using American Diabetes Association criteria (10).

In phase 2 of CURES, all the KD subjects (n = 1,529) were invited to our center for detailed studies on vascular complications, and 1,363 consented for both retinal examination and estimation of microalbuminuria (response rate: 89.1%). In addition, 15% percent of subjects with impaired fasting glucose and 10% of subjects with normal fasting glucose in phase 1 were requested to take an oral glucose tolerance test. Thirty-seven of the former group and 14 of the latter group who were detected to have diabetes according to World Health Organization Consulting Group criteria (2-h plasma glucose 11.1 mmol/l) (11) were added to the 320 randomly chosen newly detected diabetic subjects (NDD subjects) from phase 1 of the study. Of the total 371 NDD subjects, 353 consented for this study (response rate: 95.1%). Thus, the final study numbers were 1,716 diabetic subjects (KD: 1,363 + NDD: 353). The institutional ethics committee approval was obtained, and informed consent was obtained from all study subjects.

Clinical and biochemical studies
Measurements of weight, height, and waist circumference were obtained using standardized techniques. The BMI was calculated using the following formula: weight (kg)/height (m²). Blood pressure was recorded in the sitting position in the right arm with a mercury sphygmomanometer (Diamond Deluxe Industrial Electronics and Products, Pune, India) and rounded off to the nearest 2 mmHg. Two readings were taken 5 min apart, and the mean of the two was taken as the final blood pressure reading.

A fasting blood sample was taken for estimation of plasma glucose and serum lipids using a Hitachi 912 autoanalyser (Roche Diagnostics, Mannheim, Germany). A1C was measured by the high-performance liquid chromatography method using the Variant machine (Bio-Rad, Hercules, California).

Estimation of microalbuminuria
Microalbumin concentration was measured in a fasting urine sample using a immunoturbidometric assay (Hitachi 902 autoanalyser; Roche Diagnostics). The mean inter- and intra-assay coefficients of variation were 3.5 and 4.2%, respectively.

Retinopathy
The ocular fundi were photographed using four-field stereo color retinal photography (Zeiss FF 450 plus camera). Photographs were graded by an ophthalmologist (R.M.). The minimum criterion for diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy was the presence of at least one definite microaneurysm in any field photographed. Photographs were assessed and assigned a retinopathy level, and the final diagnosis for each patient was determined from the grading of the worse eye according to the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study criteria for severity of an individual eye (12).

Definitions
Hypertension.
Subjects with self-reported hypertension and those who had a systolic blood pressure of 140 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure of 90 mmHg (13) were considered to have hypertension.

Smoking.
Individuals were classified as nonsmokers and current smokers.

Microalbuminuria.
Microalbuminuria was diagnosed if the albumin excretion was between 30 and 299 µg/mg of creatinine (8). Overt nephropathy was diagnosed if albumin excretion was 300 µg/mg of creatinine in the presence of diabetic retinopathy.

Statistical analysis
Data were expressed as means ± SD. Students t test or one-way ANOVA (Tukey's honestly significant difference comparison) was used to compare continuous variables, and the ² test was used to compare proportions among groups. Logistic regression analysis was done using either microalbuminuria or overt nephropathy as the dependent variable to identify the risk factors. Subjects were also categorized based on the presence of retinopathy to study the risk factors for albuminuria with and without retinopathy. P < 0.05 was considered significant. All analysis was done using Windows-based SPSS statistical package (version 10.0; SPSS, Chicago, IL).

	RESULTS—

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There were no significant differences in the baseline values between the 1,363 responders and the 166 nonresponders among the KD subjects (responders versus nonresponders: aged 52 ± 11 vs. 51 ± 12 years, P = 0.27; 46.3 vs. 51.7% male, P = 0.20; fasting plasma glucose 9.3 ± 4.3 vs. 9.5 ± 4.4 mmol/l, P = 0.43; systolic blood pressure 131 ± 22 vs. 130 ± 22 mmHg, P = 0.581; diastolic blood pressure 78 ± 12 vs. 77 ± 11 mmHg, P = 0.31).

The mean age of the total study population (n = 1,716) was 51 ± 11 years, and 44.7% (n = 744) were male subjects. Of the total 1,716 diabetic subjects studied, 462 (26.9% [95% CI 24.8–28.9]) had microalbuminuria, 38 (2.2% [1.51–2.91]) had overt nephropathy (i.e., macroalbuminuria with retinopathy), and 53 (3.1% [3.27–3.91]) had macroalbuminuria without retinopathy (Table 1). Compared with the NDD subjects, KD subjects had greater prevalence rates of both microalbuminuria with retinopathy and overt nephropathy (8.4 vs. 1.4%, P < 0.001; and 2.6 vs. 0.8%, P = 0.043, respectively).

Prevalence of microalbuminuria and overt nephropathy was computed in relation to use of antihypertensive drugs. Of 1,716 subjects, 425 were on antihypertensive medications. Prevalence of microalbuminuria and overt nephropathy (antihypertensive drug users versus others: microlbuminuria: 33.9 vs. 24.6%, P < 0.001; overt nephropathy: 6.6 vs. 0.8%, P < 0.001) were higher in antihypertensive medication users. Subjects on antihypertensive medications were further categorized as ACE inhibitors (ACEIs)/angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) users (n = 121) and others. There was no significant difference between these two groups with respect to microalbuminuria, whereas overt nephropathy was higher in those on ACEIs/ARBs (ACEI/ARB users vs. others: microalbuminuria: 35.5 vs. 33.2%, P = 0.26; overt nephropathy: 11.6 vs. 4.6%, P = 0.004).

There were 23 subjects, 21 with KD and 2 NDD, who had renal insufficiency defined as serum creatinine levels 1.5 mg/dl. Retinopathy was present in 7 of 21 (33.3%) of KD subjects, which included nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy in 4 and proliferative diabetic retinopathy in 3 subjects. Neither of the NDD subjects with renal insufficiency had retinopathy.

Regression analysis revealed that A1C (P < 0.001), smoking (P = 0.011), duration of diabetes (P = 0.046), systolic blood pressure (P < 0.0001), and diastolic blood pressure (P = 0.022) were associated with microalbuminuria. Regression analysis was carried out after categorizing microalbuminuric patients with and without retinopathy. A1C and systolic blood pressure were common risk factors for microalbuminuria with retinopathy (A1C odds ratio 1.528 [95% CI 1.393–1.676], P < 0.001; systolic blood pressure 1.020 [1.006–1.035], P = 0.007) as well as without retinopathy (A1C 1.238 [1.165–1.315], P < 0.001; systolic blood pressure 1.021 [1.012–1.031], P < 0.001). Smoking (1.613 [1.152–2.259], P = 0.005) and diastolic blood pressure (1.018 [1.002–1.034], P = 0.028) showed association only with microalbuminuria without retinopathy, while duration of diabetes (1.085 [1.047–1.124], P < 0.001) showed an association only with microalbuminuria with retinopathy.

Overt nephropathy showed significant association with A1C (P < 0.0001), duration of diabetes (P = 0.003), and systolic blood pressure (P = 0.004) (Table 3). None of the risk factors except diastolic blood pressure showed an association with macroalbuminuria without retinopathy (odds ratio 1.034 [95% CI 1.002–1.068], P = 0.048).

	CONCLUSIONS—

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS-- RESULTS-- CONCLUSIONS-- References

We compared our prevalence rates with other population-based studies on diabetic nephropathy. Prevalence of nephropathy was extremely high among Nauruans (75% in self-reported KD subjects and 63% in NDD subjects) (20) and Pima Indians (47%) (21). A population-based study in Egypt recorded a prevalence of albuminuria of 21% among KD subjects (22). It had been earlier reported that migrant Indians have a higher prevalence of diabetic nephropathy compared with the host populations (4–6,23). Compared with these studies and others presented in Table 4, our study shows a lower prevalence of diabetic nephropathy.

The large differences observed in the prevalence of nephropathy among different studies could be attributed to the differences in study design and methodologies adopted for defining the disease. Many of the studies were clinic based, and this could have introduced a referral bias. In addition, most of these studies have not included retinopathy in the definition for diagnosis of diabetic nephropathy. The strength of our study is that it is population based and has included diabetic retinopathy in the definition with the latter diagnosed using retinal color photography. These differences in methodologies used could probably explain the lower prevalence of overt nephropathy observed in our study. However, one cannot rule out the possibility of true ethnic differences in the prevalence of nephropathy due to decreased susceptibility to microvascular disease in native Asian Indians. In support of this, in an earlier study (24) we had reported that the prevalence of diabetic retinopathy is lower in Indians compared with other ethnic groups. These findings, if confirmed by future studies, would be of great interest, as Asian Indians are known to have much higher rates of premature coronary artery disease compared with other ethnic groups (25). There could be several explanations for the lower prevalence of microvascular complications noted in our studies. It is possible that due to wide publicity of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial and the U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study results control of diabetes is improving globally, including in India, which could have resulted in lower rates of microvascular complications. Second, the prevalence of hypertension is known to be lower in native south Asians, and this may afford a relative protection against diabetic kidney disease (26). Finally, consequent to the greater awareness of the nephroprotective action of ACEIs and ARBs, usage of these drugs for preventing nephropathy has increased. This could also affect the prevalence rates of nephropathy compared with older studies. These are, however, purely speculative and need to be addressed by future, preferably longitudinal, studies.

The criteria used for the diagnosis of overt nephropathy in this study included retinopathy, as it makes the diagnosis of diabetic nephropathy more specific. However, we compared the risk factors for albuminuria with and without retinopathy to highlight the possible differences in risk factors. Poor glycemic control, long duration of diabetes, and systolic blood pressure were the risk factors for overt nephropathy. This is similar to results reported in several other studies (1,27).

In the subset of individuals who had macroalbuminuria without retinopathy (possibly suggestive of nondiabetic renal disease), diastolic blood pressure was the only associated risk factor. Moreover, the fact that the prevalence of this entity was higher among the newly detected diabetic subjects suggests that a significant proportion of these individuals could have nonspecific proteinuria/macroalbuminuria associated with uncontrolled hyperglycemia. However, some may indeed have diabetic nephropathy, as studies have shown that some patients in this category have histological changes of diabetic nephropathy (28,29). The prevalence of microalbuminuria in this study was not remarkably different from that reported in other studies. For microalbuminuria, the risk factors were similar to those for overt nephropathy, but smoking and diastolic blood pressures were additional risk factors.

The major limitation of the study is that being an epidemiological study, due to logistic reasons, only one measure of albuminuria was done in spot urine. However, this may not alter the inferences drawn, as most epidemiological studies have only used a single measure. The prevalence of microalbuminuria could, however, have been lower if repeated measurements of albumin were done, as has been shown in clinic-based studies (30). Another limitation is that renal biopsies were not performed, as it is difficult to carry out these procedures in population-based studies due to logistic and ethical reasons.

This study is of importance given the growing epidemic of diabetes in India. It is estimated that as of the year 2007, there are 40.9 million diabetic individuals in India (2). The prevalence of overt nephropathy in this study (i.e., 2.2%), when translated into numbers, would imply that >850,000 individuals in India have overt nephropathy. Most patients with macroproteinuria eventually reach ESRD (1,31). The cost of a renal transplant in India is $4,760 U.S. (Rs. 2,00,000), which is unaffordable to the majority of people in India (32). The absolute number of subjects with diabetic nephropathy thus presents an economic burden to both the individual and the society. The large pool of microalbuminuria also suggests that there could be large increases in overt nephropathy with time, unless aggressive control of diabetes and hypertension is initiated.

In conclusion, the results of this study suggest that the prevalence of overt diabetic nephropathy in Asian Indians is lower, while that of microalbuminuria is comparable to that reported in other ethnic groups. Risk factors for overt nephropathy are found to be poor glycemic control, long duration of diabetes, and systolic blood pressure, while for microalbuminuria smoking and diastolic blood pressure were additional risk factors. There is an urgent need to launch a national diabetes control program to tackle the potential economic burden due to diabetic nephropathy in India.

	Acknowledgments

 
The authors thank the Chennai Willingdon Corporate Foundation for their support for the CURES field studies.

This is the 45th report from CURES.

	Footnotes

 
Published ahead of print at http://care.diabetesjournals.org on 8 May 2007. DOI: 10.2337/dc06-2554.

A table elsewhere in this issue shows conventional and Système International (SI) units and conversion factors for many substances.

The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

Received for publication December 18, 2006. Accepted for publication May 2, 2007.

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TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS-- RESULTS-- CONCLUSIONS-- References

 

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This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) All Versions of this Article: dc06-2554v1 30/8/2019    most recent Purchase Article View Shopping Cart Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Request Permissions Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Unnikrishnan, R. Articles by Mohan, V. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Unnikrishnan, R. Articles by Mohan, V. Social Bookmarking                What's this?